Last week I came upon an extremely well written journal article titled ìAvian taxidermy in Europe from the Middle Ages to the Renaissanceî by Karl Schulze-Hagen et. al. in the Journal fur Ornithologie 144:459-478 published by Deutsche Ornithologen-Gesellschaft/Blackell Verlag, Berlin. The authors did an extremely thorough job of researching from a number of avenues, the origins of bird preservation by consulting 143 original books and manuscripts dating to the late 1400's. Since many taxidermy.net readers may have more than a cursory interest on the history of bird taxidermy, and very few would have immediate access to copies of this journal, I thought I would summarize the basic concepts and expound upon it in a readable format from my perspective. My personal interest in the history of bird taxidermy began in the early1980's when I began collecting taxidermy and scientific preparation literature which resulted in a Bibliography published in 1989 listing many of the early texts in this area. Two earlier papers by Paul Farber, (1977, 1980) linked the emergence of ornithology directly to advances in taxidermy, since science and taxonomy is based on actual specimens being preserved for future generations. This latest paper re-affirms the combination of taxidermy and science, but adds in, art, hunting, and ethnology to give a factual summary of how bird taxidermy began. Much of the following is paraphrased from the afore mentioned article.
Numerous cited authors in this work and previous historical pieces suggest that taxidermy began in Cabinets of Curiosities of wealthy nobleman or scientists of the time, and indeed, collections of natural history items can be documented to be held as early as the late 1300s early 1400's in Italy. However, many times these did not include whole specimens, but only skeletons, eggs, dried wings, etc. It probably wasn"t until the mid 1500's to early 1600's when bird skins, or rudimentary mounts, became common in cabinets - perhaps encouraged by the transportation of exotic specimens by sea voyage from around the world following the European exploration begun by the Italians. Access to early texts by the authors traced the first mention in the literature of prepared birds for science to 1555 both by Belon in Paris and Gessner in Germany. However both texts described basic mummification by evisceration and then applying various compounds and drying in an oven.. Two texts were listed as giving the ìfirstî reasonable complete procedures of taxidermy. Aitinger, 1626, in Germany described the whole procedure ì... The peeling and cutting must be done carefully and not clumsily, so that the skin stays whole and is not tornî Following this ash, sulfur and alum (dry preservative) is spread on the skin and a ìcorpusî is made of straw or hay so that the skin is put over the artificial body. Wood skewers or wires gave stability to the mount. The authors also mention Olina, 1622, (Rome) who suggested a back cut from the neck down to the tail, and to use copper wire in the body. ìHe particularly emphasizes that fat should be removed, the skin impregnated, and tears in the skin sewn upî (so what has changed in the last 400 years?). Publications on taxidermy or scientific preparation became reasonably common in the late 1700's to early 1800's as refinements to the techniques were made but in bird taxidermy the basics haven"t changed that much.
A second section of the paper by Karl Schulze-Hagen et. al. deals with evidence of usage of taxidermy in art. Very early illuminated manuscripts of the 13th through the 15th century had bird images as marginalia, especially in religious texts, but they were often stylized. By the 1400's painters began painting birds from ìlifeî. In many cases, painting from life included using a mounted bird as it could be used as a ìnaturalî model and be able to be later used in coloring. Scrutinizing of early works of art could tell if a mounted bird, a freshly killed bird, or a captive bird was used as a model. In Belon and Gessner"s works, which were prepared by mummification, scrutiny could readily show the stretched out neck, dried feathers out of place, missing eyes, twisted feathers, oddly bent legs, etc. where a preserved bird skin was used as a model. (Even today, in my opinion, if an artist uses a taxidermy mount as reference to produce a piece of art, any faults in the taxidermy will show through). The majority of birds illustrated in Gessner"s book in 1555 was done using prepared birds as models showing that taxidermy/mummification was being practiced wholesale.
A third section of the paper dealt with hunting as it relates to preparation of taxidermy pieces. Falconry often used a falcon lure made up of wings or entire bird skins for training falcons which began in the 3rd to 2cd century BC. The oldest written falconry text from the 8th century does mention the lure but doesn"t detail its preparation. Also, in bird hunting and trapping, decoys were often made of clay or wood documented in early Sumerian-Babylonia culture 5000 BC and in ancient Greece. The earliest written reference to stuffed birds being used as decoys was around the year 1300 to trap doves and pigeons. Another treatise written about 1450 used mounted birds set in trees with limed branches to catch thrushes and black grouse. Only ìgood decoysî would be sucessful in catching many birds. Waterbird hunting often employed whole rafts of decoys like Golden Plovers or Lapwings. (Essentially, hunters began using ìstuffersî about the same time that scientists and nobleman began scientific collections). Paiute Indians were mentioned as pulling the skin of ducks over a frame of woven reeds, essentially also taxidermy.
The fourth section details examples of taxidermy or taxidermy type methods being used in Ethnology. Bird plumage for ornaments was records in Egypt, and ancient romans and Greek Helmets had decorations of feathers. American Indians, as well as primitive tribes around the world also would wear whole skins of birds, often dried to fit over the head as a unit. African bushman drew prehistoric rock paintings where the bushman would dress in Ostrich skins to hunt them. These adornments all could be considered forms of taxidermy as preservation of whole or parts of the skin was the ultimate purpose of the activity.
Discussion was also given on preservation by fluid specimens (begun circa 1666), and in casting specimens. The casting of animals was primarily aimed at amphibians, reptiles and molluscs in metal and plaster begun by masters in the mid-1500's. Casing was discussed, jar fabrication, and various improvements in preservation chemicals.
On whole it is a very interesting article which I would recommend to anyone interested in this aspect of the origins of Avian Taxidermy.
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Your noblesse oblige is always appreciated.
That's some interesting information. Keep it coming I am sure everyone likes great info like that. I really enjoy reading stuff like that. It really adds to the old noggin!
It will be a great day when this acknowledged expert can take a year off from Museum work and write a thorough history of this absorbing subject.
Good work Steve.
Put me down for a signed copy - but soon. Pension is on the horizon!